Ethan Rubenstein
19 May 2021
Spaceflight emerged during the Cold War, an era marked by tense geopolitics. As a result, spaceflight served a very narrow set of purposes, which was broadly to win the Cold War on every front – socially, politically, and militarily. However, Cold War has been over for nearly thirty years, and spaceflight persists and continues to grow as an industry. The new political, economic, and social landscape of today is vastly different from that during the Cold War, and has changed the motivations behind launching rockets into space. This analysis focuses on the primary motivations behind spaceflight, and the ways that they have evolved since the first satellite was launched into space.
Humans have always had an interest in space. The sun, moon, and stars are all common motifs across religions and cultures throughout history. In the 19th and 20th centuries, writers such as Jules Verne and H.G. Wells helped to create an aura around space characterized by grand adventures, extraterrestrials, and space travel. The public’s fascination of space travel was eventually realized after the launch of the first man into space in 1961, and the slew of space achievements that quickly followed. Though instead of launching rockets with aims including exploration and adventure, as once imagined by Wells and Verne, the dawn of the space age involved a set of very specific purposes for spaceflight. The environment of the Cold War produced modern spaceflight and shaped how it evolved, based on the political imperatives of the time. Military intelligence was of utmost importance during the era, and that appears in the technology and choices surrounding early spaceflight. Though now that the Cold War has been over for nearly three decades, and spaceflight continues to occur, it is directed by a different rationale that will shape what spaceflight will look like in the future.
New inventions and innovations during the Cold War emerged from the technological advancements of the Second World War, particularly in the areas of ballistics and aeronautics. Fundamentals behind Germany’s V-2 rocket became the basis for both intercontinental missiles and space rockets. In preparing for conflict with an emerging geopolitical superpower, U.S. military and government officials ordered research about any area that might provide a political or military advantage. Evidence of the United States investigating any avenues that could grant them an advantage over the Soviets can be found in programs such as Project Iceworm, a proposal to construct nuclear launch sites under the ice in Greenland. Similarly ambitious was the Peacekeeper Rail Garrison, a plan to deploy mobile missile systems on train cars around the country in the event of a strike on the nation’s missile silos.
In investigating any avenues that might bring potential advantages over their adversaries, both military leaders in the U.S. and USSR began to invest in satellite technology in the late 1950s. Intelligence played a crucial role in developing strategy during the Cold War, and satellites provided an unprecedented opportunity in its production. While U-2 spy planes were successful at gathering photographic evidence, famously capturing photos of missile installations during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, satellites could constantly monitor larger areas and simultaneously perform several other important functions.[1] Early reconnaissance satellites like the CORONA series Discoverer 14 increased the rate of intelligence collection and provided more information about the Soviet nuclear program than all of the previous U-2 flights combined [iii]. Satellite imagery proved invaluable to both the Soviet Union and the United States during the Cold War, specifically for its usage in evaluating ground features such as missile production sites and silos.
In addition to photographic capabilities, satellites demonstrated value for other remote sensing purposes. Data collected from space provides types of information that pictures cannot. Launched in 1958, the first American satellite, Explorer I, measured radiation levels just outside Earth’s atmosphere [iv]. Although Explorer I was primarily used for scientific purposes, similar instruments were equipped on other satellites to detect nuclear detonations. The data could then be compared with photographs to gain a more accurate sense of the Soviet nuclear program.
With the importance of satellites established quickly after the invention of the technology, space as a general front for conflict became a point of discussion among military leaders in the early stages of the Cold War. Not only would satellites need to be defended from adversaries, but some imagined that satellites could be weaponized. In a 1951 Popular Science article, Wernher von Braun, famous for his contribution to the development of the German V-2 rocket and post-war American rockets, advocated for the establishment of space stations because, “the nation which first owns such a bomb-dropping space station might be in a position virtually to control the earth.” [v]. To the American military at the time, space was a new geographic location like the sea or land. Like any geographic location, it bears susceptibility to attack and thus requires a system of defense. Space was thought of as a possible front for conflict, as well as an extension of the air, necessitating control over it to prevent aerial strikes such as bombings.
The military interest in spaceflight existed in parallel with a strong public sense of national pride, which helped to propel spaceflight during the space race. As much as the Cold War encompassed a preparation for war, it also involved a competition for primacy in culture and public perception across the world. The early Soviet space achievements including the launch of the first satellite in 1957 and the first manned space flight in 1961 cast doubt on the technological superiority of the United States. Soviet advancements dismayed Americans so much that education reform emphasizing science and technology occurred across the country [vi].
The Moon became the symbol of national pride’s impact on spaceflight rationale after President Kennedy’s famous 1962 speech in which he declared, “We choose to go to the Moon.” [vii] While sending men to the moon required incredible amounts of money and labor and did not provide a primary military purpose like other space flights, the image of American astronauts on the moon would demonstrate the superiority of the American system and its people. About a quarter of the world’s population viewed the Moon landing live, and it accomplished its goal of broadcasting American excellence worldwide [viii].
The Moon landing was so effective at creating a mythos of American prestige that it influenced President Nixon to approve of the space shuttle program. In 1971, Nixon agreed with his deputy director of the Office of Management and Budget Caspar Weinberger that to not proceed with the program “would be confirming in some respects, a belief that I fear is gaining credence at home and abroad: That our best years are behind us, that we are turning inward, reducing our defense commitments, and voluntarily starting to give up our super-power status, and our desire to maintain world superiority.” [ix] This same logic motivated President Ronald Reagan to authorize plans for the construction of the space station Freedom. Although those plans were never realized, individuals involved in its conception believed that the space station would present America with an even greater potential for global leadership.
Economics was also a factor in early spaceflight, though to a lesser extent than military applications or national prestige. One of the only commercial applications of spaceflight following the first few decades after its inception existed in communication satellites. The first privately sponsored space launch occurred in 1962, when AT&T in partnership with several other organizations launched the Telstar I [x]. The Telstar I was the first satellite used to transmit signals from the earth to a satellite and back, successfully transmitting television signals across the Atlantic Ocean. Quickly realizing the potential that satellites provided in the transmission of information, the Kennedy administration created the Communications Satellite Corporation, splitting the ownership between independent investors and telecommunications companies. Soon after its founding, the company launched its first communications satellite into space and began providing telephone services across the world for a fraction of the cost of cable-based telephone calls [xi]. The telecommunications industry has proved incredibly lucrative and is one of the few primarily economic reasons that organizations engage in spaceflight.
One factor that is more relevant today yet still impacted spaceflight in the past is that of anxiety over nuclear warfare. The Cold War saw the stockpiling of nuclear arsenals; at its peak in 1966, just eight nations shared a total of over 64,000 nuclear warheads [xii]. The destructive faculties of nuclear weapons and their high number produced anxiety over a future marked by nuclear catastrophe. While the concept of mutually assured destruction made the usage of nuclear weapons less likely, it would also increase the devastation that would result if they were used. The unease over the nuclear arms race entered the cultural zeitgeist and created another motivation for spaceflight. A nuclear war might completely devastate the earth, but by sending humans to space and to other planets, humanity has the opportunity to rebuild. Nuclear war was the chief concern during the Cold War, but it can be replaced by any existential threat, such as environmental cataclysm and societal collapse, and yield the same outcome. Hence, spaceflight for human settlement of other planetary bodies is still relevant today.
Ultimately, the social, political, and economic minutiae of the Cold War affected the reasons for participating in spaceflight. The political climate of the Cold War presented several purposes for the space technology that arose in the 1950s: its usage increased national status, provided military intelligence support, and also mitigated the fragile nature of society that the nuclear arms race had formed. Public actors, in particular the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), were also the dominant force in spaceflight until very recently. As a result, spaceflight has focused on matters of national concern, including defense and communications infrastructure.
Today, the space industry is characterized by the high number of private firms that have begun to undertake actions that only NASA could in the past, such as design and launch rockets. Additionally, the modern economic, social, and political minutiae vary vastly from that of the past. The Cold War has long since formally ended, and technology has improved far enough that it is economically viable for private firms to enter the industry. Socially, the anxiety of nuclear war has been replaced with other calamities, and collaboration between former adversaries exists in the International Space Station. With the landscape of the industry so different from that of the early days of the Space Age, new motivations for spaceflight have arisen.
The emergence of a private sector within the space industry, motivated by interests other than wartime preparation and critical intelligence gathering, has particularly led to the transition away from spaceflight primarily being an arm of parties such as the Central Intelligence Agency, which was responsible for producing satellite imagery. However, space technology remains integral to both military and national defense operations. Modern spy satellites such as the National Reconnaissance Office’s L-44, provide intelligence in an era where information and its transmission rate is of utmost importance. Recently, President Trump established the latest branch of the military in the form of the United States Space Force, the world’s first independent space force. The branch’s stated goal is to “provide freedom of operation for the United States in, from, and to space” and “provide prompt and sustained space operations.” In short, the new branch consolidates responsibilities that were previously the responsibility of dozens of Department of Defense organizations [xiii]. It is clear that military and defense applications will always be a motivation to launch satellites and rockets into space. However, the relative decrease in military-driven space launches makes the rationale of private organizations account for a greater proportion of the logic to send rockets into space.
Similar to the threat of nuclear war, the possibility for a catastrophic event on Earth continues to animate some to support spaceflight efforts, especially those that might establish human settlement elsewhere. At a 2018 conference, Elon Musk describes that humans on Mars act like a seed bank in the event that humanity enters a Dark Age, which he views as an inevitability [xiv]. There also exists a general anxiety about climate change among a significant portion of the population, although most agree that it is not civilization-ending like global nuclear conflict. Still, climate change and other potential hazards create an uncertainty about the future that is met with hopes of expanding humanity beyond Earth through means of spaceflight.
Another social phenomenon motivating spaceflight that has increased in popularity in recent memory is that of a public interest in off-world colonization. Prominent figures in the modern spaceflight industry like Musk see space as a frontier and embark on a mission to settle it. On colonizing Mars, Musk says, “You want to wake up in the morning and think the future is going to be great – and that’s what being a spacefaring civilization is all about. It’s about believing in the future and thinking that the future will be better than the past. And I can’t think of anything more exciting than going out there and being among the stars.” [xv] The argument for developing a spacefaring civilization is rooted in anxiety over a civilization-ending catastrophe, yet also in a sort of frontier myth that draws inspiration from science fiction media, popular culture, and expansionism applied on a broad international scale. Considering the success of SpaceX, founded by Musk, the settlement motivation appears to be a new, significant theme in the space industry.
Perhaps the most compelling rationale for modern spaceflight is economic. Historically, the only real commercial use for unmanned spaceflight was in establishing communications satellites, which still remain a valuable utility today. Now, private sector innovation has seen the creation of novel business models and technology involving spaceflight. One notable recent development in the commercial space industry is the concept of space tourism. The market of space tourism emerged in the early 2000s at a prohibitively expensive cost for most, but has become less expensive over time. Sub-orbital flights with companies like Virgin Galactic cost around a quarter of a million dollars, while private visits to the International Space Station will start in the millions [xvi]. Space tourism may still be costly, but as technology improves and the material cost to leave the Earth’s atmosphere decreases, numerous companies believe they can expand the hospitality industry to space. Despite its relatively small market and risk, many companies including SpaceX, MirCorp, and Axiom Space find space tourism to be an financially promising area of spaceflight and subsequently invest in it heavily.
Several similarly ambitious business ideas have appeared as space technology becomes less expensive and exclusive. Asteroid mining utilizes a variety of techniques to extract raw minerals, including valuable precious metals such as gold and silver. Planetary Resources, Inc. is one company whose long-term mission is to gather resources in space and return them to Earth. Recently, the company encountered financial trouble and announced an indefinite delay of asteroid mining plans [xvii]. Some view the difficulties as unsurprising, considering analysis that suggests asteroid mining would cost more than the value of its yield given current technology and costs [xviii]. Nevertheless, private groups continue to invest in the idea in anticipation of rapid technological advancement in the coming decades. Other potential ventures with an attractive economic future to investors include space manufacturing and space elevators, a system of transportation between the planetary surface and space [xix].
While proposals like asteroid mining and space tourism contribute to the phenomenon of private companies entering the spaceflight sector, two current practical applications are the primary driving force. Satellite technology has vastly improved over the past few decades, becoming cheaper and more accessible. As a result, an increasing number of satellites have been launched into space to provide a number of services that are indispensable to modern life, including internet, phone and television signals, GPS and weather data, and many others. A growing worldwide reliance on satellite services has created a lucrative opportunity for private firms involved with them. Smaller companies like Spacety, a firm involved with designing and manufacturing small satellites called CubeSats, are now able to enter the industry without the prowess or infrastructure of large corporations like Raytheon. Over 1,000 small satellites were launched in 2020, and industry figures such as Galactic Energy’s Wu Yue believe that tens of thousands more will be launched in the near future [xx].
The second major economic driver behind private interest in spaceflight directly relates to the rising prominence of satellites. In order to function properly, satellites must be launched into space. Launching any object into space is a difficult, risky, and costly operation, but the importance of satellites in the modern age has spurred much private research into more efficient and effective launch methods. The most eminent form in which private companies seek better space launches exists in rocket innovation. SpaceX in particular has gained public attention with their fleet of rockets and transportation spacecraft. Their Falcon 9 rocket utilizes a design that makes it partially reusable, with the ability to re-enter the atmosphere and land after delivering a payload into space. The design reduces the cost of launching objects into space and its concept of reusability is currently being utilized in SpaceX’s Starship prototypes, which aim to carry both cargo and passengers. Private innovation as seen in SpaceX is a product of the economics of the spaceflight industry and will have an incredible impact on the future of space, with the SpaceX Starship holding the potential to reach Mars.
The final considerable reason for modern involvement in spaceflight is the scientific capacity inherent in it. Science has been a cornerstone of space activity since the first satellite launch in 1957. Sputnik I determined the effects of radio waves in the atmosphere, collecting information on the density of the atmosphere, and testing radio methods of orbital tracking. However, science was the secondary goal of the Soviet satellite; its principal purpose was that of military research and political posturing. The inverse is nearly true today, as military and political objectives are still a consideration for spaceflight. Scientific discovery is now an even greater motivator, especially for academic groups and organizations like NASA and the European Space Agency. Last year, the United States Congress approved over 23 billion dollars — a 5.3% increase from the previous year’s budget — to be allocated to NASA for space research [xxi]. NASA conducts research on areas ranging from the human settlement of Mars to the composition of galaxies billions of lightyears away. Much of NASA’s research shares one theme in common, though: its first objective is to broaden scientific understanding, rather than serve an economic, political, or military interest. The impetus of science is especially visible in actions such as the launch of the Hubble Space Telescope, probes, and Mars rovers.
Whereas spaceflight was chiefly a proxy for politics and military intelligence during the Cold War, it is now shifting away from military applications and towards serving scientific and economic functions. Both speculative and practical business strategies now attract private investment to the space industry, driving innovation that, coupled with scientific discoveries made over the past few years, may allow for humans to land on Mars by the end of the decade. As our rationale for spaceflight has changed, so has the resulting technology and its purpose. Only time will tell how the current rationale will manifest in decisions about spaceflight, but with new actors in the industry, the future landscape of space will look markedly different than that of the past. Soon, space may be an extension of the human domain, such as how aircraft opened up the skies.
Thank you to Dr. John Stoner of the University of Pittsburgh Department of History for providing excellent feedback and guidance.
[1] Power, F.G. Jr., 1997, “Foreword: From the U-2 to Corona.” CORONA: Between the Sun and the Earth: The First NRO Reconnaissance Eye in Space, R.A. McDonald Ed., Bethesda: American Society for Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing, vii-ix.
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